Feeding Management of Cattle and Buffalo

Role of Calcium

• 99% of the calcium in the body is present in the bones and teeth.
• Calcium controls the excitability of nerves and muscles.
• Calcium is required for normal clotting of blood.
• Calcium is necessary for activation of enzymes like trypsin, adenosine triphosphatase.

Clinical signs

• In young animals calcium deficiency causes rickets, characterised by misshapen bones, enlargement of the joints, lameness and stiffness.
• In adult animals calcium deficiencies produces Osteomalacia, characterised by weak bones, fragile and are easily broken.
• Enlargement of the osteochondral joints in the ribs produces a condition called as Rickety Rosary.
• Pigeon chested appearance is a symptom due to enlargement of sternum.
• Milk fever (parturient paresis) is a condition in dairy cows shortly after calving, is characterized by a lowering of the serum calcium level, muscular spasms, and in extreme case paralysis and unconsciousness.

Supplementation

• Ground limestone
• Steamed bone meal
• Dicalcium phosphate and
• Green leafy crops, especially legumes, are good sources of calcium.

Role of Phosphorus

• Phosphorus occurs in close association with calcium in bone.
• Phosphorus plays a vital role in energy metabolism in the formation of sugar-phosphates and adenosine di- and triphosphates. ( ADP & ATP)
• Phosphorus plays a key role in metabolic reaction of carbohydrate, protein and lipids which occurs through phosphorylated intermediate compounds.
• Phosphorus is the component of phospholipids, which are important in lipid transport and metabolism as constituent of cell membranes.
• Phosphorus is constituent of RNA and DNA.
• Phosphorus is a component of many enzyme systems.

Clinical signs

• In young animals phosphorus deficiency causes rickets, characterised by misshapen bones, enlargement of the joints, lameness and stiffness.
• In adult animals phosphorus deficiencies produces Osteomalacia, characterised by weak bones, fragile and are easily broken.
• Enlargement of the osteochondral joints in the ribs produces a condition called as Rickety Rosary.
• Pigeon chested appearance is a symptom due to enlargement of sternum.
• 'Pica' or depraved appetite has been noted in cattle when there is a deficiency of phosphorus in their diet; the affected animals have abnormal appetites and chew wood, bones, rags and other foreign materials.
• In chronic phosphorus deficiency animals may have stiff joints and muscular weakness.
• Low dietary intakes of phosphorus have also been associated with poor fertility, apparent dysfunction of the ovaries causing inhibition or depression and irregularity of oestrus.

Supplementation

• Cereal grains,
• Fish meal and
• Meat products

• Magnesium is closely associated with calcium and phosphorus.
• Essential constituent of bone and teeth.
• Magnesium is the commonest enzyme activator.
• Magnesium plays a role in oxidative phosphorylation leading to ATP formation
• Magnesium is necessary in metabolism of carbohydrate, lipids and in the biosynthesis of proteins.

Clinical signs

• In adult ruminants low blood levels of magnesium (hypomagnesaemia) causes a condition known as hypomagnesaemic tetany /magnesium tetany /lactation tetany / grass staggers.
• It is characterized by nervousness, tremors, twitching of the facial muscles, staggering gait and convulsions.

Supplementation

• Wheat bran
• Dried yeast
• Cottonseed cake
• Linseed cake
• The mineral supplement most frequently used is magnesium oxide, which is sold commercially as calcined magnesite.

• It regulates acid base equilibrium of the body.
• It maintains osmotic pressure.
• Control water metabolism in the tissue.
• Essential for the operation of enzyme systems.
• Neural and muscular conduction and transmission.
• Sodium is the main cation of extracellular fluids.
• Stored largely in body fluids and soft tissues.

Clinical signs

• A deficiency of sodium in the diet leads to a lowering of the osmotic pressure, which results in dehydration of the body.
• Symptoms of sodium deficiency include poor growth and reduced utilization of digested proteins and energy.

• It regulates acid base equilibrium of the body.
• They maintain osmotic pressure.
• Control water metabolism in the tissue.
• Essential for the operation of enzyme systems.
• Neural and muscular conduction and transmission.
• Potassium is the main cation of intracellular fluid.
• Stored largely in body fluids and soft tissues.

Clinical signs

• Diets low in potassium induces retarded growth
• Weakness and
• Tetany, followed by death.

• It regulates acid base equilibrium of the body.
• They maintain osmotic pressure
• Control water metabolism in the tissue.
• Essential for the operation of enzyme systems.
• Neural and muscular conduction and transmission.
• Chlorine plays an important part in the gastric secretion, where it occurs as hydrochloric acid as well as chloride salts.
• Stored largely in body fluids and soft tissues.

Deficiency

• A dietary deficiency of chlorine leads to an abnormal increase of the alkali reserve of the blood (alkalosis).

Excesss

• Excess of sodium chloride in the diet leads to salt toxicity.
• It is characterized by excessive thirst, muscular weakness and oedema.

Role of Iron

• More than 90 per cent of the iron in the body is combined with proteins, the most important being haemoglobin and myoglobin.
• Iron also occurs in blood serum in a protein called transferrin, which is concerned with the transport of iron from one part of the body to another.
• Ferritin, is a protein containing iron, is present in the spleen, liver, kidney and bone marrow and provides a form of storage for iron.
• Haemosiderin is another storage form of iron.
• Iron has a major role in many of biochemical reactions, particularly in connection with enzymes of the electron transport chain (cytochromes).
• Electrons are transported by the oxidation and reduction activity of bound iron.
• Enzymes containing or activated by iron are catalase, peroxidases, phenylalanine hydroxylase and all the tricarboxylic acid cycle enzymes.

Clinical signs

• Anaemia due to iron deficiency occurs most commonly in rapidly growing suckling animals, since the iron content of milk is usually very low.
• Iron deficiency anaemia is not common in calves because in practice it is unusual to restrict them to a milk diet without supplementary feeding.

Supplementation

• Legume and oil seed meal
• Cereals straw and bran
• Ferrous sulphate salts and
• iron dextran

Role of Copper

• Copper is the integral component of enzymes namey Ceruloplasmin (ferrooxidase), Erythrocuprein, Cytochrome oxidase, Lysyl oxidase, Tyrosinase.
• Copper is the integral component Turacin, a pigment of feathers.
• Copper is required for maintenance of crimp of wool.

Deficiency

• A deficiency of copper impairs the animal's ability to absorb iron leads to anemia
• Poor growth
• Bone disorders.
• Scouring, gastro-intestinal disturbances
• Infertility,
• Depigmentation of hair and wool,
• Lesions in the brain stem and spinal cord. The lesions are associated with muscular inco-ordination, and occur especially in young lambs - swayback condition also known as 'enzootic ataxia' or neonatal ataxia.
• The signs range from complete paralysis of the newborn lamb to a swaying staggering gait, which affects, in particular, the hind limbs.
• Loss of 'crimp' in wool - 'stringy' or 'steely' wool
• 'falling disease' – sudden death due to rupture of major blood vessels
• Copper deficiency also leads to reproductive problems in cattle.

Excess

• Continuous ingestion of copper in excess of nutritional requirements leads to an accumulation of the element in the body tissues, especially in the liver. Hence copper can be regarded as a cumulative poison.
• Chronic copper poisoning results in necrosis of the liver cells,
• Jaundice,
• Loss of appetite and
• Death from hepatic coma.

Source

• Seeds and seed by-products
• Application of copper containing fertilizer to lands
• Provision of copper containing salt licks
• Ingestion of organic complexes of Copper

Role of Zinc

• A high concentration of zinc is present in the skin, hair and wool of animals.
• Several enzymes in the animal body are known to contain zinc; these include carbonic anhydrase, pancreatic carboxypeptidase, lactate dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase and thymidine kinase.
• In addition zinc is an activator of several enzyme systems

Clinical signs

• Deficiency of Zinc causes subnormal growth, depressed appetite, poor feed conversion and leads to reproductive disorders in farm animals.
• Symptoms of zinc deficiency, in calves include inflammation of the nose and mouth, stiffness of the joints, swollen feet and parakeratosis characterized by Reddening of the skin followed by eruptions, which develop, into scabs.

Requirement

• Cattle require 30 mg/ kg of feed.

Source

• Yeast
• Bran and germ of cereal grains.
• Animal protein by-products such as meat meal and fishmeal are usually richer sources of the element than plant protein supplements.

Role of Manganese

• An activator of many enzymes such as hydrolases and kinases.
• As a constituent of enzymes such as arginase, pyruvate carboxylase and manganese superoxide dismutase.
• Manganese through its activation of glycosyl transferases is required for the formation of the mucopolysaccharide which forms the organic matrix of bone.
• Manganese containing Superoxide dismutase catalyses the reactions that promote immunity in animals.

Clinical signs

• Deficiency of Manganese causes retarded growth, skeletal abnormalities and ataxia of the newborn and reproductive failure.
• Low manganese diets for cows leads to depress or delay oestrus and conception, and to increase abortion.

Requirement

• Cattle: 25 mg/Kg of feed

Source

• Bran and wheat bran, offals.
• Most green foods contain adequate amounts.
• Manganese Salts: Oxide, chloride, carbonate

Role of Cobalt

• Cobalt is required by microorganisms in the rumen for the synthesis of vitamin B12.
• Cobalt acts as an activating ion in certain enzyme reactions.

Clinical signs

• Cobalt deficiency causes vitamin B 12 deficiency in ruminants.
• Wasting disease or coast disease or Pining or Enzootic marasmus characterized by decreased feed intake, emaciation, loss of body weight due to wasting of skeletal muscles, decreased growth rate and fatty degeneration of liver.

Requirement

• 0.07 ppm in the DM – for dairy cattle

Source

• salt licks
• mineral mixtures or
• By placing cobalt oxide bullet in the ventral sac of rumen using a cobalt gun pellets.

Role of Selenium

• Selenium is a component of gluthathione peroxidase, an enzyme, protecting cell membrances from oxidative damage.
• Selenium has a sparing effect on vitamin E by ensuring normal absorption of the vitamin.
• Selenium also reduces the amount of vitamin E required to maintain the integrity of lipid membranes and aids the retention of Vitamin E in plasma.

Clinical signs

• The most frequent and the most important manifestation of Selenium deficiency in farm animals is muscle degeneration (myopathy).
• Nutritional myopathy, also known as muscular dystrophy, frequently occurs in cattle, particularly calves.
• The myopathy primarily affects the skeletal muscles and the affected animals have weak leg muscles, a condition manifested by difficulty in standing and after standing, a trembling and staggering gait. The animals are unable to rise and weakness of the neck muscles prevents them from raising their heads. This condition known as white muscle disease.
• The heart muscle may also be affected and death may result.

Selenium toxicity

• Animals grazing chronically some species of plants (Astragalus racemosa) that grow in seleniferous areas contain very high levels of selenium named as Alkali disease and blind staggers.
• Symptoms include dullness, stiffness of the joints, loss of hair from mane or tail and hoof deformities.
• Acute poisoning, which results in death from respiratory failure, can arise from sudden exposure to high selenium intakes.

Role of Thyroid

• Iodine plays an important role in the synthesis of the two hormones, triiodothyronine and tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine) produced in the thyroid gland.
• The thyroid hormones accelerate reactions in most organs and tissues in the body, thus increasing the basal metabolic rate, accelerating growth, and increasing the oxygen consumption of the whole organism.

Clinical signs

• The main indication of deficiency is an enlargement of the thyroid gland, termed endemic goitre, and is caused by compensatory hypertrophy of the gland.
• The thyroid being situated in the neck, the deficiency condition in farm animals manifests itself as a swelling of the neck, 'big neck'.
• Reproductive abnormalities are one of the most outstanding consequences of reduced thyroid function; breeding animals deficient in iodine give birth to hairless, weak or dead young.

Requirement

• Cattle 400- 800 micro gram /day

Supplementation

• The richest sources of this element are foods of marine origin like seaweeds, fish meal etc.
• In areas where goiter is endemic, precautions are generally taken by supplementing the diet with the element, usually in the form of iodized salt.

Excess - Clinical signs

• Fluorine is a very toxic element, with ruminants being more susceptible, causes a condition called as flurosis.
• There is dental pitting and wear, leading to exposed pulp cavities.
• Further increases in fluorine cause depression of appetite, lameness and reduced production.
• Bone and joint abnormalities also occur, probably owing to ingested fluorine being deposited in the bone crystal lattice as calcium fluoride.
• The commonest sources of danger from this element are
  • Fluoride-containing water,
  • Herbage contaminated by dust from industrial pollution and
  • The use of soft or raw rock phosphate supplements.

Role of Vitamin A

• Synthesis of glycoprotein to maintain integrity of epithelial cells.
• In bone formation synthesis of mucopolysacharides.
• Synthesis of the visual pigment Rhodopsin.
• Retinol and retinoic acid (RA) are essential for embryonic development during fetal development.

Clinical signs

• Inadequate retinol available to the retina results in impaired dark adaptation, known as "night blindness."
• Mild vitamin A deficiency may result in changes in the conjunctiva (corner of the eye) called Bitot's spots.
• Severe or prolonged vitamin A deficiency causes a condition called xeropthalmia (dry eye) characterized by changes in the cells of the cornea that ultimately result in corneal opacity, keratinization of the cornea, corneal ulcers, scarring, and blindness.
• Sometimes vitamin A deficiency can lead to obstruction of lacrimal ducts due to degenerated epithelial cells leading to decreased output of tears.
• Vitamin A is needed for bone formation. If vitamin A is deficient optic foramen is not formed properly. Small size optic foramen leads to the constriction of optic nerve. Permanent damage to the nerve can lead to permanent blindness.
• Infection of gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, uro genital tract and skin is common in Vitamin A deficiency.
• Deficiency of vitamin A can lead to infertility or sterility in male.
• Deficiency of vitamin A can lead to vaginitis, abnormal estrous cycle, early embryonic mortality, abortion and defective formation of foetus in females.
• Deficiency of vitamin A can lead to developmental bone deformities.
• Vitamin A deficiency leads to elevated cerebro spinal fluid (CSF) pressure results in thickened duramater leading to under absorption of CSF.

Excess- Clinical signs

• Over consumption of preformed vitamin A is called hypervitaminosis A. Symptoms include nausea, headache, fatigue, loss of appetite, dizziness, and dry skin.

Supplementation

• Oils from livers of certain fish (Cod and Halibut),
• Egg yolk and milk fat.

Clinical signs- Deficiency-Rickets

• Calcium and Phosphorus deposition in bones is affected and the bones are weak, more prone to fractures and deformities.
• The conditions commonly seen are bowing of legs, swollen knees and hock and arching of back.
• Occasionally there is paralysis.
• Rickety Rosary – enlargement of Osteochondral junction in ribs are also noticed.

Deficiency – Osteomalacia

• Resorption calcium and phosphorus from the bone that was already laid down.
• Bones become weak, more prone to fractures and deformities.
• It can occur in pregnant and lactating animals, which require increased amount of calcium and phosphorus

Toxicity – Clinical signs

• Vitamin D toxicity (hypervitaminosis D) induces abnormally high serum calcium levels (hypercalcemia), which could result in bone loss, kidney stones and Calcification of organs like the heart and kidneys if untreated over a long period of time.

Supplementation

• Cod liver oils (rich source),
• Egg yolk and sun dried roughage's/grains.

Role of Vitamin E

• Vitamin E functions in the animal mainly as biological antioxidant.
• In association with the selenium-containing enzyme glutathione peroxidase, it protects cells against oxidative damage caused by free radicals.
• Vitamin E also plays an important role in the development and function of the immune system.

Clinical signs -Deficiency

• The most frequent and the most important manifestation of Selenium deficiency in farm animals is muscle degeneration (myopathy).
• Nutritional myopathy, also known as muscular dystrophy, frequently occurs in cattle, particularly calves.
• The myopathy primarily affects the skeletal muscles and the affected animals have weak leg muscles, a condition manifested by difficulty in standing and, after standing, a trembling and staggering gait.
• The animals are unable to rise and weakness of the neck muscles prevents them from raising their heads popularly known as white muscle disease.
• The heart muscle may also be affected and death may result.

Supplementation

• Green fodders,
• Cereal grains,
• Vegetable oils,
• Fats,
• Nuts,
• Oil seeds and
• Legumes.

Role of Vitamin K

• Vitamin K is required for synthesis of prothrombin in the liver, which is necessary for blood clotting.

Deficiency – sweet clover disease

• Low Prothrombin level in blood leads to hemorrhagic conditions.
• In cattle sweet clover disease is associated with Vitamin K.
• Sweet clover contains a compound dicoumarol, which lowers prothrombin content of blood.

Supplementation

• Green leafy vegetables,
• Synthesized by bacteria in gastro intestinal tract.

Role of Vitamin C

• Formation of collagen and intercellular cement substance (Capillaries, teeth, bone).
• Plays an important role in the oxidative reduction reaction of living cells.
• Involves in metabolism of tyrosine.
• Absorption of iron and incorporation of plasma iron into ferritin.
• Hydroxylation of deoxycorticosterone, tryptophan, phenylalanine.

Clinical signs-Deficiency

• Scurvy in adults characterized by Weakness, bleeding, loosens teeth, swollen joints hemorrhages.
• Infantile scurvy characterized by anorexia, listlessness, leg drawn up to abdomen swelling at ends of long bone, gums swollen, dyspnoea, cyanosis, convulsions and death if not treated.
• Delay in wound healing.

Supplementation

• Stress increases the requirement of this vitamin.
• Citrus fruits and green leafy vegetables.

What is Hay?

The object in haymaking is to reduce moisture in green fodders to a sufficient degree so that they can be stored without fear of fermentation losses or spoilage due to mold growth. In that process the endeavour should be to preserve the maximum amount of nutrients possible. The Stage of maturity of the crop at the time of cutting is very important as far as nutritive value of the hay is concerned. An early cut means more nutritive value but less yield. Late cuttings on the other hand will result in less nutritive value but more bulk.

• The fodder cut at the Proper stage will have the maximum nutrients and, therefore, will make better hay. Delay in harvesting fodder for haymaking will make the stems woody and lignified with the resultant deterioration in the nutritive value. Besides, a part of the nutrients would have been used up in seed formation. Thus, crops cut at the proper stage can make good quality hay.
• Good hay will be having a major proportion of the leaves intact. The leaves are richer in nutrients compared to other parts. Shattering of leaves during the process of haymaking will, therefore, reduce the quality of hay.
• Green colour of hay is an indication of its quality. It means that a greater proportion of the leaves have been preserved and losses due to bleaching, leaching, fermentation, etc have been minimized.
• It will be made out of thin-stemmed crops so that it is soft and palatable.
• The crop used for haymaking should be free from weeds and poisonous plants to get good hay.
• Hay should not have more than 20-23 per cent moisture when stored. If there is more moisture, fermentation will take place, generating a great deal of heat. Ultimately it may lead to spontaneous combustion. Even if it does not catch fire, the nutritive value would have seriously affected.
• Good hay will be free from dust and mold
• It will have a pleasant aroma, which adds to its palatability
  
  

• Selection of suitable plant varieties: and its cultivation on good soil with proper care in the form of watering, fertilization, etc. The seed rate should be high ensure dense stand of the crop, which will result in finer stems, heavier yield and less weeds.
• Cutting the fodder at the proper stage of maturity. For Lucerne in the first cut, it is the early bloom stage and in the second and subsequent it is when one-tenth to one-fourth of the crops are in the bloom. For grasses it is when they begin to head out, for grain crops when grain is in the milk stage and for cowpea when pods are half to fully matured.
• Curing of the hay: In curing hay the objectives are to (i) Preserve maximum nutrients, and (ii) to remove moisture sufficiently to avoid moldiness and spoilage. During curing, shattering losses should be minimized. In leguminous plants, shattering is more and special care may be taken to avoid it. Leaves constitute roughly 50 percent by weight but contain more than 70 per cent of the protein and 90 percent of carotene.
• Bleaching and fermentation losses: Even under ideal conditions there is loss of nutrients during curing. But, when the temperature is too high or when moisture content has not been kept low enough, severe losses due to bleaching and fermentation take place. The green colour of the hay is more or less proportional to the carotene content. Losses in nutrients due to leaching from rain is the major loss when one tries to make hay during monsoon season. The leaching losses are negligible if the rain falls just after cutting of the crop. Losses increase with the advancement of curing, if leaching takes place.
• Moisture content of hay: From freshly cut crop with moisture content of 70 to 80 percent. Hay of different types has to be prepared with the following moisture content – For loose hay-- 25–28 %, For baled hay--22-25%, For chopped hay –19-22%. In order to judge whether hay is properly cured, two thumb rule methods are available

• a. The scrape method. With the nail try to scrape the epidermis from the stem of the plant. If the epidermis can be peeled from the stem, it is not sufficiently cured.
• b. The twist method. A small amount of the hay is twisted in the hands. If the stem breaks a little and no ‘plant juice’ comes out from the twisted stems, assume that the hay has been cured well

• Storing properly: Enough care may be taken while storing hay to protect it from rain and sunlight. There are four popular methods of haymaking. They are field curing, mow curing, artificial drying and pelleting.
  
  

• Shattering of leaves: Common in legumes. Leaves are richer in protein, minerals, vitamins etc, if over dried loss will be more
• Fermentation: Occurs in the soluble carbohydrates as a result of respiration. Sugars are oxidized to CO2 and H2O. This loss results in the concentration of cell wall constituents especially cellulose and lignin. This is the reason why hay has more crude fibre than that of original herbage. Proteins are also likely to be altered by the action of plant enzymes.
• Oxidation: Loss of carotene occurs due to oxidation from 150-200 mg to as little as 2-20 mg/kg of hay.
• Leaching: In prolonged heavy rain there will be loss of soluble minerals, sugars and nitrogen constituents resulting in high concentration of cell all constituents which is reflected in high fibre content. Rain also prolongs the enzyme action causing greater loss of soluble carbohydrates.
• Action of micro organisms: if drying is prolonged because of bad whether, changes will be brought about by bacteria and fungi results in mouldy hay. These fungi (actionomyces) infected hay is responsible for allergic disease condition “Farmer’s lung” in farmers who handle such damaged hay.
• Storage of growth: If grass is cut at a latter stage, it will result in poor nutritive value.